Key Insights
The Middle East and Africa lipids market, valued at approximately $XX million in 2025, is projected to experience robust growth, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.14% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is driven by several key factors. The burgeoning food and beverage industry across the region, particularly the increasing demand for processed foods and functional foods enriched with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, is a significant catalyst. Simultaneously, the growing awareness of health and wellness, coupled with rising disposable incomes, is fueling the demand for nutritional supplements and functional foods containing lipids. The pharmaceutical sector's utilization of lipids in drug delivery systems also contributes to market growth. Specific segments like phospholipids and omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids are experiencing higher growth rates compared to others due to their widespread applications and perceived health benefits. However, challenges such as fluctuating raw material prices and stringent regulatory frameworks in certain countries could potentially impede market growth to some degree. Despite these challenges, the long-term outlook remains positive, with significant growth potential in untapped markets within the region. Further market segmentation analysis by specific countries within Africa (like South Africa, which is expected to be a major contributor) would provide more granular insights into this dynamic market.
The geographic distribution of this growth within the Middle East and Africa is likely uneven. Countries with more developed economies and a higher awareness of health and wellness are expected to show faster growth rates. For instance, South Africa's established food processing industry and relatively higher per capita income would likely place it as a leading market within Africa. Conversely, some countries in the region may experience slower adoption due to economic factors or limited infrastructure. Investment in research and development focusing on the development of sustainable and cost-effective lipid production methods will be crucial in driving further expansion of the market. Furthermore, collaborations between lipid producers and food/pharmaceutical companies to develop innovative lipid-based products tailored to specific regional needs will play a vital role in shaping the future trajectory of this market.

Middle East & Africa Lipids Market Report: A Comprehensive Analysis (2019-2033)
This comprehensive report provides an in-depth analysis of the Middle East & Africa Lipids Market, offering invaluable insights for industry stakeholders, investors, and strategic decision-makers. With a detailed study period spanning 2019-2033 (Base Year: 2025, Estimated Year: 2025, Forecast Period: 2025-2033, Historical Period: 2019-2024), this report unveils the market's dynamics, trends, and future potential. The market is valued at xx Million in 2025 and is projected to reach xx Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of xx% during the forecast period. Key players analyzed include Cargill Incorporated, Solutex Inc, Archer Daniels Midland Company, Croda International PLC, BASF SE, Soho Flordis International South Africa (Pty) Ltd, Koninklijke DSM N.V., Kerry Group plc, and others. The report segments the market by form (Phospholipids, Glycolipids, Others), product type (Omega 3 and Omega 6, Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs), Others), and application (Food and Beverage, Nutrition and Supplements, Feed, Pharmaceuticals).
Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Market Dynamics & Concentration
The Middle East and Africa Lipids Market is characterized by a moderately concentrated landscape, with a few major players holding significant market share. The market share of the top five players is estimated at xx% in 2025. Innovation is a key driver, with companies continuously developing new lipid products to meet evolving consumer demands and cater to various applications. Stringent regulatory frameworks governing food safety and labeling influence market dynamics. The market experiences competition from product substitutes, particularly in the food and beverage sector, where alternative ingredients gain traction. End-user trends towards healthier diets and functional foods drive demand for specific lipid types, especially Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids. M&A activities have been relatively moderate in recent years, with approximately xx deals recorded between 2019 and 2024, reflecting consolidation and expansion strategies among key players.
Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Industry Trends & Analysis
The Middle East and Africa Lipids Market is experiencing robust growth driven by several factors. Rising health consciousness among consumers, coupled with increasing awareness of the health benefits associated with specific lipids, fuels market expansion. Technological advancements in lipid extraction, purification, and modification enable the development of novel products with enhanced functionalities. Consumer preferences are shifting toward clean-label and natural products, creating opportunities for sustainably sourced lipids. The competitive landscape is dynamic, with existing players investing in research and development and new entrants leveraging innovation to gain market share. The market penetration of specific lipid types like MCTs is increasing steadily, driven by their applications in functional foods and dietary supplements. The market is witnessing a shift from traditional methods of lipid production to more efficient and sustainable technologies.

Leading Markets & Segments in Middle East and Africa Lipids Market
Dominant Region/Country: [Specify the dominant region or country based on your analysis, e.g., South Africa or Egypt]. This dominance is driven by factors such as [Explain the reasons for dominance e.g., higher per capita consumption of processed foods, growing healthcare sector, favorable government policies].
Dominant Segments:
By Form: Phospholipids currently hold the largest market share, driven by their widespread applications in food and pharmaceuticals. Growth in the demand for functional foods and nutritional supplements is propelling the phospholipids segment.
By Product Type: Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids are major market drivers, due to rising consumer awareness regarding their health benefits. The MCT segment is experiencing rapid growth fueled by its applications in sports nutrition and functional beverages.
By Application: The Food and Beverage sector constitutes the largest application segment, followed by the Nutrition and Supplements segment. Growth in both segments is driven by the increasing demand for functional foods and fortified products. The Pharmaceuticals sector is a significant application segment for specialized lipids used in drug formulations.
Key Drivers:
- [List bullet points of key drivers for each segment (e.g., Economic growth in specific countries, government initiatives promoting healthy diets, expanding food processing industry, etc.)]
Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Product Developments
Recent product innovations focus on enhancing the functionality, stability, and bioavailability of lipids. Companies are developing novel lipid-based ingredients with improved health benefits, such as targeted delivery systems for nutrients and bioactive compounds. Technological advancements in lipid processing and encapsulation technologies are key drivers of product development. These innovations are aimed at meeting diverse consumer demands, improving product shelf life, and enhancing the competitive advantages of manufacturers.
Key Drivers of Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Growth
The Middle East and Africa Lipids Market is propelled by rising disposable incomes, increasing urbanization, and growing health awareness among consumers. Government regulations promoting the consumption of healthy fats and fortified foods contribute to market growth. Technological advancements leading to improved lipid extraction and purification methods are also vital drivers. The expanding food and beverage industry, along with the growth of the healthcare sector, further fuels market expansion.
Challenges in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Market
The market faces challenges including fluctuating raw material prices, supply chain disruptions, and intense competition among players. Regulatory hurdles related to food safety and labeling add complexity. The lack of awareness regarding the benefits of specific lipids in certain regions presents a barrier. Furthermore, the high cost of some specialized lipids may limit their widespread adoption.
Emerging Opportunities in Middle East and Africa Lipids Market
Emerging opportunities lie in the development of innovative lipid-based products, such as personalized nutrition solutions and functional foods. Strategic partnerships between lipid manufacturers and food companies are crucial for market expansion. Technological advancements in lipidomics and personalized nutrition present significant opportunities. Furthermore, exploring new markets and untapped consumer segments within the Middle East and Africa region offers growth potential.
Leading Players in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Sector
- Cargill Incorporated
- Solutex Inc
- Archer Daniels Midland Company
- Croda International PLC
- BASF SE
- Soho Flordis International South Africa (Pty) Ltd
- Koninklijke DSM N.V.
- Kerry Group plc
Key Milestones in Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Industry
- [List key milestones with dates and brief descriptions of their impact. Example: "July 2022: Launch of a new line of Omega-3 enriched infant formula by X company, driving market penetration in the infant nutrition segment."]
Strategic Outlook for Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Market
The Middle East and Africa Lipids Market holds significant growth potential due to increasing consumer demand for functional foods and nutritional supplements. Strategic partnerships, investments in research and development, and expansion into new market segments will be key for achieving sustained growth. Companies that effectively cater to the evolving consumer preferences and adapt to the changing regulatory landscape will be best positioned to capture market share in the coming years.
Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Segmentation
-
1. Form
- 1.1. Phospholipids
- 1.2. Glycolipids
- 1.3. Others
-
2. Product Type
- 2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 2.3. Others
-
3. Application
- 3.1. Food and Beverage
- 3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 3.3. Feed
- 3.4. Pharmaceuticals
-
4. Geography
- 4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 4.2. South Africa
- 4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. Saudi Arabia
- 2. South Africa
- 3. United Arab Emirates
- 4. Rest of Middle East and Africa

Middle East and Africa Lipids Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 4.14% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Growing Demand for Plant Based Alternatives; Expanding Application of Pea Protein Toward Food Fortification
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Low Awareness and Application of the Additive
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Rising Demand of Medium Chain Triglycerides
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 5.1.1. Phospholipids
- 5.1.2. Glycolipids
- 5.1.3. Others
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 5.2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 5.2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 5.2.3. Others
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 5.3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 5.3.3. Feed
- 5.3.4. Pharmaceuticals
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 5.4.2. South Africa
- 5.4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 5.4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 5.5. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.5.1. Saudi Arabia
- 5.5.2. South Africa
- 5.5.3. United Arab Emirates
- 5.5.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 6. Saudi Arabia Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 6.1.1. Phospholipids
- 6.1.2. Glycolipids
- 6.1.3. Others
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 6.2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 6.2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 6.2.3. Others
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 6.3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 6.3.3. Feed
- 6.3.4. Pharmaceuticals
- 6.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 6.4.2. South Africa
- 6.4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 6.4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 7. South Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 7.1.1. Phospholipids
- 7.1.2. Glycolipids
- 7.1.3. Others
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 7.2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 7.2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 7.2.3. Others
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 7.3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 7.3.3. Feed
- 7.3.4. Pharmaceuticals
- 7.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 7.4.2. South Africa
- 7.4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 7.4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 8. United Arab Emirates Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 8.1.1. Phospholipids
- 8.1.2. Glycolipids
- 8.1.3. Others
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 8.2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 8.2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 8.2.3. Others
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 8.3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 8.3.3. Feed
- 8.3.4. Pharmaceuticals
- 8.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 8.4.2. South Africa
- 8.4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 8.4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 9. Rest of Middle East and Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 9.1.1. Phospholipids
- 9.1.2. Glycolipids
- 9.1.3. Others
- 9.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 9.2.1. Omega 3 and Omega 6
- 9.2.2. Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- 9.2.3. Others
- 9.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 9.3.2. Nutrition and Supplements
- 9.3.3. Feed
- 9.3.4. Pharmaceuticals
- 9.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 9.4.1. Saudi Arabia
- 9.4.2. South Africa
- 9.4.3. United Arab Emirates
- 9.4.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Form
- 10. South Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Sudan Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Uganda Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Tanzania Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 14. Kenya Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 15. Rest of Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 16. Competitive Analysis
- 16.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 16.2. Company Profiles
- 16.2.1 Cargill Incorporated
- 16.2.1.1. Overview
- 16.2.1.2. Products
- 16.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.2 Solutex Inc
- 16.2.2.1. Overview
- 16.2.2.2. Products
- 16.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.3 Archer Daniels Midland Company
- 16.2.3.1. Overview
- 16.2.3.2. Products
- 16.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.4 Croda International PLC
- 16.2.4.1. Overview
- 16.2.4.2. Products
- 16.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.5 BASF SE
- 16.2.5.1. Overview
- 16.2.5.2. Products
- 16.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.6 Soho Flordis International South Africa (Pty) Ltd
- 16.2.6.1. Overview
- 16.2.6.2. Products
- 16.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.7 Koninklijke DSM N V *List Not Exhaustive
- 16.2.7.1. Overview
- 16.2.7.2. Products
- 16.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.8 Kerry Group plc
- 16.2.8.1. Overview
- 16.2.8.2. Products
- 16.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.1 Cargill Incorporated
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Form 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: South Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Sudan Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Uganda Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Tanzania Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Kenya Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Rest of Africa Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Form 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Form 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Form 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Form 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: Middle East and Africa Lipids Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 4.14%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market?
Key companies in the market include Cargill Incorporated, Solutex Inc, Archer Daniels Midland Company, Croda International PLC, BASF SE, Soho Flordis International South Africa (Pty) Ltd, Koninklijke DSM N V *List Not Exhaustive, Kerry Group plc.
3. What are the main segments of the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market?
The market segments include Form, Product Type, Application, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Growing Demand for Plant Based Alternatives; Expanding Application of Pea Protein Toward Food Fortification.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Rising Demand of Medium Chain Triglycerides.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Low Awareness and Application of the Additive.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Middle East and Africa Lipids Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Middle East and Africa Lipids Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence